I.  Early presence of Chinese Muslims – Zheng He, the Muslim Eunuch 

Introduction

In the Southeast Asia region, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei are the three countries where Islam is the predominant religion.  Indonesia, with 90% of its’ 210 million people being Muslim, is also the largest Muslim country in the world.  In Malaysia, a multiracial, multi-religious, and multi-cultural country with a population of 23 million, Malay Muslims stand at a little more than half of the population, followed by Chinese and Indians, the other two large ethnic groups, and many other minorities from various ethnic origins.

Ethnicity and religion are closely related in Malaysia. In a very simplistic generalization, Malays are Muslim by constitutional definition, and people of other races are usually not;  the other races are free to practice their own religion.  This simple belief of ‘Muslim is Malay’ has often led to the undermining of the other Muslim communities in Malaysia who are not Malay, such as the Indians, Pakistanis, Thais, people of Arab / Iranian / Yemeni descent, part of the Melanaus, Dusuns and Kadazans in East Malaysia, and also, the Chinese Muslims.  

In Malaysia, Chinese Muslims may be very little in number.  The national census 2000 shows the number at more than 57000.¹ .  However, they have had a long history in this region, spanning at least 600 years, not only in today’s Malaysia, but the whole of the then Malay World.  From the original Hui Chinese who came here and settled during the 15^th century, to the thousands of Chinese who converted into Islam, the presence and contribution of the Chinese Muslims have unfortunately not been recognized enough by Malaysian historians, scholars and politicians.  

The objective of this research is an attempt to highlight this presence: the Chinese Muslims in Malaysia, their history and development.

Chapter One

Chinese Muslim Settlers in Malaysia through different periods in history 

This chapter will present the few Hui Hui communities through various periods in history who have come and settled in the Malay world and Malaysia. 

I.   Early presence of Chinese Muslims – Zheng He, the Muslim Eunuch

The first Chinese Muslim arrivals on this soil can easily be traced to more than six hundred years ago.  As far back as the 15^th Century, there were already records of Chinese Muslims in Melaka.  During the Ming Dynasty ( 1368-1644) in China, Admiral Zheng He (Cheng Ho) [鄭 和] sailed several times to the then Malay world, including Malacca, and went on until the Eastern coast of Africa.   Zheng  He, a Muslim originating from Yunnan, led seven naval expeditions on behalf of the Emperor, starting during the reign of Emperor Yong Le, with more than 300 ocean going vessels, and many Muslims among his crew of 200.000 to 300.000 men.  This article does not intend to explore in detail Zheng He’s exploits, but will just touch on the Islamic activities, influence and legacy left by him and his men on the shores of the Malay Peninsula and nearby areas in the 15^th century Malay World.   

Much of the information on Zheng He’s  voyages were compiled by Ma Huan [馬 歡], also Muslim, who accompanied Zheng He on several of his inspection tours and served as his chronicler / interpreter.  In his book Ying-ya Sheng-lan  [瀛涯勝覽] (The Overall Survey of the Ocean Shores) written in 1416, Ma Huan gave very detailed accounts of his observations of the peoples’ customs and lives in ports they visited.  One other book on Zheng He’s voyages,  Xing–cha Sheng-lan [星槎勝覽] (Description of the Starry Raft) (1436) was written by  Fei Shin [費 信 ] who was also secretary / interpreter to Zheng He.   In his seven voyages, Zheng He sailed from China to all major ports in Southeast Asia and India, from Champa to Aden, via ports among which are Ayutthaya, Melaka, Palembang, Surabaya, Jakarta, Semarang, etc … .    

Described as an ‘explorer, conqueror, and trader’, and as an envoy of the Emperor of China, Zheng He’s visits to the Muslim Malay World had an undeniable impact as far as Islam is concerned.  Indonesian Islamic scholar Hamka wrote in 1961:  “The development of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He.”² In Malacca he built granaries, warehouses and a stockade, and most probably he left behind many of his Muslim crew – because the local community was Muslim -- to take care of these interests.

Even though there is a vast choice of documents relating the Chinese Muslim connection to Indonesia, produced by Indonesian and foreign researchers, not much is found about ports on the Malay Peninsula.  This chapter will be an attempt to draw parallel situations and developments from records, of the impact of a mighty Chinese Muslim Admiral’s visits on the Chinese who lived in Muslim Indonesian states in the same frame of time, and in a space of close geographical proximity.

Zheng He had many Muslim Eunuchs as his companions.   At the time when his fleet first arrived in this area, there were already Chinese of the ‘Mohammedan’ faith living  there.  Ma Huan talks about them as Tangren [堂人] (Chinese) who were Muslim.³   At places they went, they frequented mosques, actively propagated the Islamic faith, established Chinese Muslim communities and built mosques.    

Parlindungan Mangaradja Onggang writes that when the Ming Dynasty’s fleet stopped in Semarang, Zheng He, Ma Huan and Fei Xin often went to the mosque to pray.  He adds:  “Under the influence of Zheng He between 1411-1416, in the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, and the Philippines, there developed many Chinese Muslim areas, and many mosques were built.”⁴

Claudine Salmon believes that “……...the expansion of Islam in the East Indies and the simultaneous formation of ‘Chinese’ communities ……… are two parallel developments.”   She cites Muslim dignitaries with Chinese origin, or Chinese who converted to Islam and married local women, who can be traced in various places from Aceh to Palembang in Sumatra, to Banten in Java, and further to the East in Semarang and Mojokerto.  Salmon gives well documented evidence of the Chinese Muslim presence, and their heavy influence on the social, political and economic scenes on the Indonesian islands.  “……….. the first Muslim kingdoms in Java, the extent to which the presence of the Chinese is perceptible everywhere.”  She adds that the Dutch and English sources provide plentiful information on Muslim dignitaries.   Many of them are mentioned with their Chinese surnames, such as Lim Lacco from Banten, who was the advisor of the Pangeran; So Bing Kong, a pepper trader from Kendal; the Han family from Surabaya, a well-known Chinese Muslim family for many generations.  ⁵ 

Indonesian scholar Slamet Muljana ⁶ writes: “Zheng He built Chinese Muslim communities first in Ju Gang (Palembang), then in San Fa (West Kalimantan), subsequently he built same kind of communities along the shores of Java, the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines.  They propagated the Islamic faith according to the Hanafi sect and in Chinese language.

Amen Budiman narrates the story of Wang Jing-Hong [王 景 弘 ] , Zheng He’s vice commander.  He fell sick as the fleet arrived at the Northern shores of Central Java.  Zheng He ordered to stop at Semarang, to seek cure for Wang Jing–Hong.  Ten days later, Zheng He pursued westwards with his fleet, leaving behind Wang Jing-Hong and ten men.  Wang Jing-Hong loved this place; so when he recovered from his illness, he did not follow Zheng He.  He stayed and taught the local people and the Chinese who lived there agriculture and trade, and propagated Islam to them.⁷ 

Tan Yeok Seong⁸ in his article ‘Chinese Element in the Islamisation of Southeast Asia’⁹ tells about the very interesting Great Lady of Gresik, Shih Ta Niang Tzi Pi Na Ti [Shi Da Niang Zi Bi Na Zhi]  [施大娘子俾那智 ], and their sibling squabble over the inheritance of power, in which Zheng He was asked to intervene.  She was Chinese Muslim.  In fact, many of the Chinese chieftains in that area were Muslim.  Tan, in his conclusion, affirms that “These early settlements were peopled by Chinese Muslims who had created a sphere of influence for themselves with the co-operation of Zheng He.  Religion and trade then went hand in hand. ………. Through Islam, the Muslims, in spite of their racial differences, became masters of trade; while, on the other hand, successful maritime trade helped to spread Islamisation.  The Chinese settlers of this period were pioneers of both these enterprises.  They had been Muslims and had established for themselves Islamic settlements at important trade centres, such as Palembang and Gresik.  From these centres a process of converting the indigenous people was begun”. 

The stone cave where Zheng He stayed during his visit to Semarang was said to be a center for the propagation of Islamic religion at that time, according to a legend recorded by Heru Christiyono. ⁹

Li Tong Cai, in his book ‘Indonesia – Legends and Facts’, writes : “in 1430, San Bao Tai Jian [The San Bao Eunuch] had already successfully established the foundations of the Hui religion [Islam]…… After his death in 1434, Haji Yan Ying Yu [顔 英 裕] became the force behind the Chinese Muslim community.  He delegated a few local Chinese as leaders, such as Sun Long [孫 龍], a trader from Semarang, and Peng Rui He [彭 瑞 和] and Haji Peng De Qin  [彭 德 慶].    Sun Long and Peng Rui He actively urged the Chinese community to ‘Javanise’. They encouraged the younger Chinese generation to assimilate with the Javanese society, to take on Javanese names and their way of life.  Sun Long’s adopted son Chen Wen, also named Radin Pada is the son of King Majapahit and his Chinese wife.” 10

Among the ‘nine saints of Java’ a few were of Chinese blood.¹¹ 

In the Malay World 500 years ago, we see that there was already an active Chinese Muslim community dispersed over large areas, and distinguished enough to occupy high positions and marry local Muslim dignitaries.  This active presence was certainly encouraged and strengthened by Zheng He’s numerous visits to these places over nearly thirty years, and for the fact that, at that time, Islam was already a religion well established and practiced by the local people.   

However, after Zheng He’s death, Chinese naval expeditions were suspended.  After a lapse of 400 years, the Hanafi Islam that Zheng He and his people propagated lost almost all contact with Islam in China, and gradually was totally absorbed by the local Shafi’i sect.   When Melaka was successively colonised by the Portuguese, the Dutch, and later the British, Chinese were discouraged, (short of being declared illegal), to convert into Islam.  Many of the Chinese Muslim mosques became San Bao temples commemorating  Zheng He, the seafarer.  With time, the influence of Chinese Muslims in Malacca declined to almost nil.

II. Under the British Rule

During the British colonial times (1824-1957), the British companies imported large numbers of laborers, mainly from India and China, to work at the tin mines and plantations.  There were also traders from various countries..  The population was of extremely varied ethnicities:  Apart from the Malays, Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Eurasians, there were Bugis, Javanese, Bengalis, Arabs, Philippinos (Manila-man), Singhalese, etc… Among these, many were of Muslim communities, the largest group among Muslims being Malays.

In the Straits Settlements (Singapore, Penang, Wellesley, Malacca) and the Confederation of Malay States (Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Pahang), census were taken every ten years.   In 1901, in the four confederated states, namely Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Pahang, the number of Chinese stood at 299.739 Chinese.¹²

An article written by Mohammed Djinguiz, and published in 1908 in the Revue du Monde Musulman [ Revue of the Muslim World] gives the number of Muslims in different states of the British colonies according to ethnic classification.¹³  The number for Chinese Muslims tabulated against non-Muslim Chinese and non-Chinese Muslims are shown as such:

*The figures in parenthesis are the ratio of Chinese Muslims to the total population of Chinese and total population of Muslims respectively.

From the above we can see that the number of Chinese Muslims shows 17.927, among a total Chinese population of 581.598, and a total Muslim population of other races of 661.216.  Chinese Muslims consisted of a mere 3% of all Chinese, and only 2.7% of all Muslims.  How many of these were original Hui Chinese who came from China, and how many had converted locally is not known.  Almost 18.000 does make up a good size community, even if they are a very small minority.  If these people had preserved their Chinese Muslim identities, by the most conservative estimate, there should have been at least 90 to 100.000 Chinese Muslim descendants from them in 4 or more generations.   Where are they?  How did they disappear?

Two logical assumptions would be that:

1.  As new waves of Chinese emigrants arrived on these shores, the Muslims among them married non Muslim Chinese women who did not convert to Islam, and with time, living in a majority Chinese community, they gradually left their Islamic practice.  An example is given below through the Kuok clan in Penang. 

2. They have assimilated through intermarriage with the local Muslim community, mainly Malay, and the Chinese blood and characteristics have diluted after a few generations, such as the Terengganu Yunani clan. 

Looking at another figure that shows the ratio of female against the male among the Chinese population mentioned above, there were 27.155 female against 272.582 male.¹⁴  That makes ten men to one woman in the Chinese community.  With such a huge shortage of female partners, it is logical to think that many of the Chinese Muslim men would have found it easier to marry local Muslim women.  There would have been no difficulty for those men who were already Muslim; they would eventually be assimilated into the local Malay Muslim community.  For those who were not Muslim, two differing happenings could be assumed: a number of them would have converted to Islam, also making up for the big number of Chinese Muslims in the 1901 census.  Children born of these intermarriages would mostly go on marrying Malays, taking one more step towards assimilation.  Thus, after a few generations, the descendants would not even be aware of a Chinese ancestor, not a thing they would have been proud of at that time anyway.  Many other Chinese men who married local Malay Muslims could have done so without converting. This way they remained Chinese, with a touch of Malay culture, and no Islamic religion – Peranakan --.  There is no clear documentation on what happened to these almost 18000 Chinese Muslims in Malaysia at the beginning of the 20^th century.

It is a sociological truth that, even until a decade ago, Malays did not like to acknowledge that they had any Chinese blood in their veins, not so much because of the racial element, but because of the religious ‘impurity’ for which they would be teased.  As Huntington puts it:  “It is alright to be half French and half Algerian, but not half Christian and half Muslim.”¹⁵   So, if one had a Chinese parent or grandparent, one just kept it a secret, and hoped that nobody would inquire about the fairness of her skin or the slant in his eyes.  A young girl whose paternal grandmother is Chinese told of how angry her father would be when people mentioned that her sister had such ‘oriental’ looks: “Don’t ever say that.  We are pure Malay”;  the father would retort.  For long years he did not want to discuss with his children when they asked about their grandmother who had Chinese looks, but had become very Malay in her appearance and behaviour.  This attitude is not unique to one person or family.  

Times have changed.  Today, for various reasons, Malays are not ashamed or shy anymore to tell of their Chinese parentage. However, after a few generations of discretion, it is difficult to trace the lone Chinese Muslim ancestor.  The more known story of the Hui Hui of Terengganu shows a clear pattern of this kind of assimilation.   

III.  The Yunnani Family of Terengganu

A well recorded history:

        Below is the translation from Malay of the Foreword of the booklet WARISAN KELUARGA KE ARAH SILATURRAHIM [from family heritage towards spirit of togetherness]

“At the end of the 19^th century, Pak Ali Yunan or Haji Ali bin Idris, after marrying Hajah Halimah, followed her parents, Muhammad Ali and Siti Maryam to Palembang, their hometown in Sumatera, Indonesia.

Around 1903, Pak Ali, his wife, his mother-in-law, and their little daughter Saa’diah, born in Palembang, went to Singapore in search of a new life.  In Singapore he met Pak Lah (Abdullah bin Sulaiman) and Pak Musa, both from Guangdong.  These three friends were also relatives.  Pak Musa and Pak Lah sold miscellaneous things such as tasbihs (prayer beads), decorative beads, perfumes and traditional